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Research on visualization and mental imagery with children indicates that even young children can utilize mental imagery. A child’s ability to generate, manipulate, and maintain images develops significantly between the ages of 4 and 8, and further improves with age. This ability is linked to various cognitive skills, including memory, learning, and creativity. It can be leveraged in educational settings to enhance comprehension and performance in subjects such as reading, math, and science. Guided imagery techniques are also used in child psychology to manage depression, anger, anxiety, and stress. Studies show that visualization has a profound and positive impact on a child’s emotional well-being and mental health.

Key findings from research on children and mental imagery

Early development

Studies show that children as young as 2-4 years old can generate and maintain basic mental images when prompted, with the precision of image manipulation increasing with age.

Impact on learning

Research indicates a strong connection between mental imagery and academic performance, with children who can effectively visualize concepts often demonstrating better understanding and recall in various subjects.

Cognitive benefits

Beyond academic performance, mental imagery is linked to improved spatial reasoning, problem-solving abilities, and creative thinking in children.

Guided imagery applications

Therapists frequently use guided imagery techniques to help children manage anxiety, pain, and stress, promoting relaxation and positive emotional states.

Areas of research focus

  • Developmental trajectory:
    • Examining how the different aspects of mental imagery (generation, manipulation, maintenance) develop across childhood and adolescence.
  • Individual differences:
    • Investigating factors like gender, cognitive style, and learning abilities that may influence the effectiveness of visualization strategies in children.
  • Brain imaging studies:
    • Utilizing neuroimaging techniques to understand the neural correlates of mental imagery in children.
  • Educational applications:
    • Exploring effective ways to incorporate visualization strategies into classroom learning across various subjects.

Examples of research methods

Imagery vividness questionnaires

Asking children to rate the clarity and detail of their mental images.

Mental rotation tasks

Assessing children's ability to mentally manipulate objects in different spatial orientations.

Story recall tasks

Examining how well children can remember details of a story by visualizing key elements.

Experimental studies

Manipulating visualization instructions to assess their impact on learning outcomes

Explore Results for the 2024 NAEP Mathematics Assessment

In 2024, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) administered the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessment to representative samples of fourth- and eighth-grade students in the nation, states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Department of Defense schools, and 26 participating large urban districts. The assessments measured students’ knowledge and skills in mathematics and their ability to solve problems in mathematical and real-world contexts. Students also answered survey questions about their opportunities to learn about and engage in mathematics inside and outside of school.
How Did Students Perform in Mathematics?

Grade 4 & Grade 8
In 2024, the average score at eighth grade was not significantly different from 2022 but was 8 points lower compared to 2019. Although the average score in 2024 did not significantly change compared to 2022, scores increased for higher-performing students at the 75th and 90th percentiles, while scores decreased for lower-performing students at the 10th and 25th percentiles. The average score at grade 8 was higher compared to the first assessment in 1990.

Explore detailed average score and percentile results on the National Trends and Student Skills page.

In 2024, twenty-eight percent of eighth-grade students performed at or above NAEP Proficient in mathematics in 2024, which was 2 percentage points higher compared to 2022 and 6 percentage points lower compared to 2019. Thirty-nine percent of eighth-graders performed below NAEP Basic, which was 1 percentage point higher than in 2022 and 8 percentage points higher compared to 2019.

NAEP achievement levels are performance standards that describe what students should know and be able to do. Results are reported as percentages of students performing at or above three achievement levels (NAEP Basic, NAEP Proficient, and NAEP Advanced). Students performing at or above the NAEP Proficient level on NAEP assessments demonstrate solid academic performance and competency over challenging subject matter. It should be noted that the NAEP Proficient achievement level does not represent grade-level proficiency as determined by other assessment standards (e.g., state or district assessments). NAEP achievement levels are to be used on a trial basis and should be interpreted and used with caution. Find out more about NAEP mathematics achievement levels.